Core77

Silicon City: Computer History Made in New York

By Alexandra Alexa - December 9, 2015

New York World's Fair IBM Pavilion, 1964 The centerpiece of the IBM Pavilion at the 1964 New York World's Fair was a theater known as "the egg," designed by architect Eero Saarinen. IBM Corporation Archives 1 of 41

The "People Wall" Inside "The Egg." Every 15 minutes, 500 visitors entered the "people wall" inside the theater. Here, they were introduced to the magic of the information machine through Charles and Ray Eames' multi-screen media experience "THINK." Core77 2 of 41

Display of printed ephemera related to the 1964 World's Fair. IBM looked to designers like Paul Rand to craft its brand identity, and used the 1964 World's Fair as a "coming out party" for the Information Age. Core77 3 of 41

Installation View Core77 4 of 41

Display of Thomas Edison's light bulbs, dating back to 1880. Thomas Edison did not invent computers, but all early computers relied on Edison's work. While refining his light bulb, Edison noticed that electrons in a vacuum flowed from a heated filament to a cooler foil plate. Nearly 30 years later, physicist John Fleming used this "Edison effect" to create the vacuum tube. For the next half century, vacuum tubes were the voltage regulators and current amplifiers at the heart of radios and other electronic devices, including computers. Core77 5 of 41

The Punched Card System Population growth complicated the execution of the 1890 national census—it became impossible to finish the headcount before the 1900 census began. Herman Hollerith devised a fast solution, by recording data on punch cards which could be read by tabulating machines. This remained the primary input system for computers until the 1970's. Core77 6 of 41

IBM Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator Operator Console, 1948. Designed by Wallace Eckert at Columbia University, IBM's Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator (SSEC) featured 12,500 vacuum tubes and more than 21,000 relays. The first computer to store data, the SSEC calculated the positions of the moon and planets, and was the last electromechanical calculator ever built. The calculator was installed in IBM's New York headquarters, where it was operated from 1948 to 1952. Core77 7 of 41

Marlyn Wescoff and Ruth Lichterman wiring the right side of the ENIAC with a new program, ca. 1946. During the 1940s wartime era, women dominated the field of programming, which required the painstaking tasks of connecting cables and setting switches by hand. Jean Bartik, Frances Bilas and other women worked on the Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer (ENIAC), developed for the Army during World War II. US Army Archives 8 of 41

Replica of George Stibitz's 1937 Model K Binary Adder. Bell Labs researcher George Stibitz conceptualized a computer that processed data using electronic relays. To test his theory, he developed the Model K Adder (called "K" simply because he made it in his kitchen). This model pioneered digital computing through binary numbers and through this and subsequent experiments, he became widely regarded as one of the fathers of digital computing. Core77 9 of 41

Plugboard of UNIVAC 1004 used for punched card data processing, 1963. Plugboards were an intermediate solution between the hard-wired built-in programming of early tabulators and the software-driven computers of today. Though they still had to be programmed through physical connections, they were a step toward making computers more flexible. Core77 10 of 41

Footage of Walter Cronkite covering election night on CBS News in 1952. The UNIVAC was touted as "a fabulous electronic machine" capable of predicting the outcome of the 1952 election. But when it gave Eisenhower 100-1 odds, people started thinking it was too implausible. Fast forward two months: Eisenhower is sworn into office, Walter Cronkite is known as "the most trusted man in America" and UNIVAC is the first computer to become a household name. Core77 11 of 41

IBM 701 Processor, 1952. The IBM 700 series was available during the 1950s and early 19602. These vaccuum tube computers were the company's first commercial mainframes, available in two separate iterations, one optimized for scientific use and the other for businesses. Core77 12 of 41

IBM 701 Electronic Data Processing System Advertisement, 1953. Core77 13 of 41

IBM 729 Magnetic Tape Unit, 1960. These iconic computers (the one in the exhibition appeared in Men in Black III when the characters travel back in time) used tape reels to house memory, which had to be fast-forwarded or rewinded to locate data. Core77 14 of 41

Grace Hopper Teaching COBOL, ca. 1960's. In the late 1950s, software was developed to tell computers what to do and how to do it. IBM introduced FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslating) in 1957, a computer programming language used for calculating numbers and formulas—an ideal ideal process for scientists and engineers. COBOL (COmputer Business Oriented Language), designed for commercial data processing by the Department of Defense, debuted in 1959 and is still used today. Its development team included Grace Hopper, called the "mother of COBOL." Computer History Museum 15 of 41

IBM 350 RAMAC Disk, ca. 1957. This unit was the first disk drive and set the scene for a next generation of computers. It allowed a computer to go directly to a bit of stored data rather than fast-forwarding or rewinding through tape—known as random access. IBM's 350 Disk Storage unit used 50 such disks which were capable of storing 5 MB of data, the equivalent of 62,500 punched cards. Altogether, the unit weighed over a ton! Core77 16 of 41

IBM, Magnetic-Core Memory, 1955-1970. Magnetic cores were the most common random access memory technology from the mid 1950s through the early 1970s. They used rings threaded with wires, each ring could be magnetized either clockwise or counterclockwise to represent a one or a zero. Core77 17 of 41

Installation View Core77 18 of 41

Installation View Core77 19 of 41

Bell Labs Engineers Working on Telstar 1, 1961. The Telstar 1 was the product of a multi-national agreement including ATT, Bell Telephone Labs, NASA, the United Kingdom's General Post Office, and France's National Telegraph and Telephone. The first images were broadcasted via satellite on July 23, 1962, and included the Statue of Liberty, the Brooklyn Bridge, the New York Harbor and the Eiffel Tower in Paris. Alcatel-Lucent / Bell Labs Archive 20 of 41

Installation View The processes driving today's wired world began in the 1800s with the telegraph system. Throughout the 20th century, AT&T and Bell Labs—both based in New York—pioneered communications technology and transformed the city into America's communications hub. Core77 21 of 41

Mrs. Lyndon B. Johnson in Washington chats via videophone with Dr. Elizabeth A. Wood, June 24 1964. Bell Labs experimented with videophones since the 1920s and debuted the picturephone Model 1 at the 1964 World's Fair with a call between First Lady Johnson and engineers at Bell Labs. Core77 22 of 41

AT&T and Bell Labs Picturephone Model 2 and Push-Button Phone, 1969. A few years later they developed the Model 2, targeting corporate users. Unfortunately, the technology and service subscription were too costly—the service alone cost about $1,000 per month in today's money—and by 1977 there were only seven subscribers nationwide. Core77 23 of 41

IBM System/360 Model 40 Operator's Console, 1964. When IBM president Thomas J. Watson debuted the System/360 he declared that it represented "a sharp departure from concepts of the past" and would be "the beginning of a new generation...in business, science and government." Though the computer was described as a "single system" it was not an all-in-one machine, but rather consisted of a processing unit, memory storage modules and controller unit. It was the first of its kind to cover a complete range of applications. Core77 24 of 41

IBM 5150 Personal Computer, Monitor and Keyboard, 1981. Above, IBM 5100 Print Advertisement, 1975. In the 1950's transistors made radios light and portable and in the 1980's they did the same for computers. Unveiled in 1981, the IBM 5150 took individual computers mainstream and transformed the industry. Core77 25 of 41

Display featuring early transistorized consumer products. Hearing aids developed by New York's Sonotone company were the first transistorized consumer products, often referred to as "electronic miracles." Also on view are an array of transistor radios. Core77 26 of 41

Display showing the evolution of the transistor. Core77 27 of 41

Microchip, 1990 Gordon Moore noted in 1965 that the number of transistors per square inch had doubled since the invention of the integrated circuit. By the late 1980's, a single microchip the size of a fingernail could hold more than two million components. Core77 28 of 41

Interactive display of experimental projects merging art and technology in the 1960s. Filmmaker Stan VanDerBeek collaborated with computer graphics expert Ken Knowlton of Bell Labs on a series of eight films for his Poemfields series of 1966. Written in the programming language BeFLIX (developed by Knowlton) they combine computer-generated graphics with fragments of text and electronic music. Core77 29 of 41

Installation View IBM president Thomas J. Watson declared that "good design is good business," and to that end brought in a host of top designers to reimagine the company's products, packaging and showrooms. At the helm was Paul Rand, who played an important role in shaping the image of the business. Core77 30 of 41

IBM Selectric Typewriter, photographed by Eliot Noyes for an ad campaign, 1961. New York was at the forefront of transforming electronics from laboratory tools to consumer products. IBM particularly distinguished itself by combining technical innovation with a focus on branding, design, marketing, and sales. IBM Corporation Archive 31 of 41

Display showing the evolving IBM logo. Rand created IBM's iconic logo, reflecting his statement that "simplicity is difficult to achieve, yet worth the effort." The company evolved its emblem periodically to reflect its stature as an icon of the Computer Age. Core77 32 of 41

Scale models of IBM computers, ca. 1960s IBM recognized that to be at the forefront of the industry was not only about technology, but aesthetics as well. They produced detailed scale models of their array of products and displayed them throughout their office in New York so customers could better visualize the products. Core77 33 of 41

Photograph from "Color for Computers" IBM brochure, ca. 1960s. Occupying a firm place in New York, a center for design innovation during the 1960s, IBM created color-coordinated products and released a series of brochures explaining that "color, properly balanced and exactingly used can make a difference." IBM Corporation Archives 34 of 41

Display of various THINK magazine issues. IBM debuted its own THINK magazine in 1935, a publication that served to present thoughtful and inspiring essays on new developments in science and art. Core77 35 of 41

Display of IBM Selectric Typing Elements, ca. 1970. Prior to the IBM Selectric, the only way to change font and type size on a typewriter was to buy a new typewriter! These snap-in balls made changing fonts much easier. Users were also able to choose between 10 and 12 characters-per-inch, allowing basic typographic design considerations to enter the world of typing. Core77 36 of 41

Display of key developments in the worlds of music and gaming. Core77 37 of 41

Electronic Violin, 1983. Computer generated music started at Bell Labs, propelled by the inventions of musical pioneer Max Mathews. Mathews reimagined the instrument he grew up playing and made a dozen versions of electric violins over the years. He was always focused on creating new ways for musicians to interact with technology. Core77 38 of 41

Radio-Batons, ca. 1980s. Also created by Max Mathews, these batons could conduct computer music through radio transmitters in their tips. Core77 39 of 41

Max Mathews with Radio-Batons, 1987. Users could control the tempo, speed and volume in three dimensions by moving the batons up and down or back and forth over a flat surface containing a radio receiver. Peter J. Menzel 40 of 41

Tennis for Two Game, 1958. William Higinbotham, a physicist working at Brookhaven National Laboratory on Long Island had the idea that "it might liven up the place to have a game that people could play, and which would convey the message that our scientific endeavors have relevance on society." Using an oscilloscope, analog computer and simulated bouncing balls, he created the first computer game that let two people compete directly. Core77 41 of 41

We venture to guess that most people won't jump to name New York as a central hub of the technological era, but as the New York Historical Society (NYHS) exhibition "Silicon City" demonstrates, the forebears of the modern computer were working on the East Coast rather than the West. Through 300 artifacts and archival materials, the exhibit retells the lesser-known narrative of the digital revolution, celebrating New York's role in transforming the innovations that define our lives today.

It all begins with the 1964 New York World's Fair, where the public was first introduced to computing at the IBM Pavilion. Visitors to the NYHS are similarly welcomed by a version of the multimedia installation called "THINK" that was put on by Charles and Ray Eames inside the theatre designed by Eero Saarinen, popularly known as "the egg." From here, the exhibition's timeline progresses through a series of thematic sections beginning with the earliest innovations that set the groundwork for the computer revolution—Samuel Morse's Electric Telegraph (1840s), Thomas Edison's early light bulbs (1880s) and the punched card machines of the 1890s. The exhibit considers the evolution of computing from military research led machines in the World War II era, all the way through the various leaps that eventually led to the personal computer we are all too familiar with. Along the way, the exhibit highlights the important role women played in developing the field of programming.

New York emerges as a nerve center of innovation. It was the place where AT&T and Bell Laboratories led the way with research that generated pivotal inventions like the first transistor in 1947 and Telstar 1, the satellite used to transmit the first live images from space in 1962, along with developing the infrastructure necessary to support the Internet: digital phone lines, fiber optic cables and satellites. Later, Bell Labs led the development of electronic music and visitors will be happy to see some early computerized musical instruments on display.

The end of the exhibition focuses on the relationship between technology and design, with a showcase of IBM's evolving branding identity and iconic ephemera produced by designer Paul Rand. Although the industry shifted to the West Coast in the 1980s, New York is currently undergoing a technological revival with several key companies setting their roots within the city. The exhibition closes on this optimistic note, with a multimedia presentation mapping these offices and sharing insight from their leaders.

"Silicon City" is on view at the New York Historical Society through April 17, 2016.